age of sagaing fault

Thus, we initiated palaeoseismic work in Myanmar with the hope that the precise timing of pagoda destructions would provide exceptional constraints on the recurrence characteristics of large seismic events on the 1200-km-long strike-slip Sagaing fault. Unit (b) underlies the cultivated layer (a). Blue squares show the locations of pits dug through the base of the earthen fortress wall. Summary. [2], The Indo-Burman Range is a sedimentary belt mainly consisted of Cenozoic flysch sediments[17] and a core of Mesozoic ophiolites dated back to late Jurassic overlain on a thick Mesozoic sequence. That is, the pattern of slip is similar from event to event. Field investigations of an ancient fortress wall in southern Myanmar reveal an offset of ∼6 m across the Sagaing fault, the major right-lateral fault between the Sunda and Burma plates. Emmel F.J. Fig. All the above unconformity lies on a metamorphic basement dated back to pre-Triassic. 1c). This morphology suggests it is a topsoil layer that was later buried by deposit (b) and (a). Radiocarbon analyses of charcoal from the upper part of unit (e) (samples P807, P805, P806 and P809 in Table 1) yield ages similar to those of samples in unit (g), 990–1230 C.E. The vertical red line shows the trace of the Sagaing fault on the fluvial plain as revealed by field mapping and remote sensing. Henry M. (2003) used 2 yr of GPS observations to estimate 18 mm yr−1 of elastic deformation across the central Sagaing fault. C. R. Acad. (2004). Saw Ngwe Khaing, 2014. [11], The 1000 km Myanmar Central Belt consists of a series of Cenozoic sub-basins between the Indo-Burman Range (west) and Sagaing Fault (east). If the slip rate along the Sagaing fault varies significantly at different latitudes, we should have observed other subsidiary structures to accommodate the differential slip rates along the Sagaing fault. [1] The India-Eurasia plate collision which initiated in the Eocene provides the last geological pieces of Myanmar,[3] and thus Myanmar preserves a more extensive Cenozoic geological record as compared to records of the Mesozoic and Paleozoic eras. Clear geomorphic evidence of recent activity occurs only along that section of the Mae Ping fault closest to the Sagaing fault. (c) Right-lateral displacements along the part of the southern Sagaing fault that bisects the high-intensity region of the 1930 May Pegu earthquake. Additional Supporting Information may be found in the online version of this article: Table S1. This thin layer of silt is the most recent suspension deposit from flooding in the rainy season. 4, 2, 11-32. Rates based upon models (green and blue) are greater than those based upon field observations (red). spanned late Eocene to Oligocene (at least from 37, possibly 47, to 29 Ma). (1998), this study and Vigny et al. This characteristic of the unit is distinct throughout the trench exposure, so we separate the brick-rich band as another mappable unit, (g). Sci. for temporary royal use. We have hypothesized that radiocarbon dates from charcoal in that layer and layer b1 are older than the units themselves, having come from campfires or burnt timbers upstream. However, that contact does have an elevation change of several cm across the upward projection the fault. Vigny et al. The most prominent of these is the central 260 km between Myanmar's second most populous … come from several different sources (Milne 1911; Chhibber 1934; Thawbita 1976; Saw Htwe Zaw 2006; Win Swe 2006). The proximity of the Sagaing fault to several major cities and towns means that large numbers of people are at risk. Chhibber H.L.. Curray J.R. In the west the Indian Plate is colliding obliquely with the Burma Plate along the northern extension of the Sunda megathrust (Socquet et al. The occurrence of only a single cultural horizon within the trench strata implies that the fortress operated only for a short period. Comparison of these slip-rate estimates shows that estimates for the central Sagaing fault (Myint Thein et al. If the embankment served as military defence structure within the same period, we would expect to find the remains of similar construction materials within the confines of the ancient walls. Stratigraphic columns of the four pits dug through the base of the fortress wall (Fig. 2003). Both the separations and the derived offsets appear on Fig. Ladage S. Orogenic Au: Gold mineralization in Myanmar is inferred as Orogenic type and or Cretaceous–Paleogene fault zone related. In the south these cities include the Myanmar's new capital, Nay Pyi Daw, and the ancient capitals of Taungoo and Bago (previously called Pegu). Rangin C. There are no local farmers old enough to attest to effects associated with the 1930 earthquake and we found no datable materials in unit b to constrain the date of the rupture. The location of this hand-dug trench is shown in Fig. [7], The sedimentary sequence overlain by the ophiolites ranges from Late Triassic to Orbitoides-bearing Late Cretaceous carbonates and shales,[7] where part of the sedimentary sequence has undergone high pressure/low temperature blue-schist metamorphism. Sagaing fault of Burma and 1500 km south of the eastern Himalayan syntaxis (Lacassin et al., 1993; Palin et al., 2013). Varghese J.. Lacassin R. We have mapped the burrows where they are clearly visible, but other burrows may have gone unrecognized. 3c). The Pyu earthquake, which occurred just 6 months later on 1930 December 3, had a similar magnitude (Ms 7.3), but was most severe farther north. This page was last edited on 14 February 2021, at 18:28. , 2003 ; … The average earthquake recurrence interval for the section of the fault north of the 1930 surface rupture is 140–180 yr, which we calculate by dividing the fault slip rate of 14–18 mm yr−1 into 2.5 m of slip per event. 9), 41.2 ± 1.4 Ma (grain 11) and 41.0 ± 1.9 Ma (grain 13), whereas a single analysis on grain 7 produced a Th–Pb age of 43.5 ± 3.6 Ma (Fig. Harlow et al., 2014, Harlow et al., 2015 reached the same conclusion, unsurprisingly, since the Sagaing Fault was the only major strike-slip fault widely recognized in Myanmar at that time. It is conceivable that the small vertical separation at the base (and possibly the top) of unit b reflects minor slip near the northern terminus of the 1930 rupture. Coloured squares are background seismicity from the USGS/NEIC global earthquake catalogue since 1973. (B) Relationship after removal of the vertical offset from the eastern (distant) profile, as judged by the difference in elevation between the original, pre-fortress land surfaces. 1982; Meade 2007; Liu & Bird 2008), even if these models consider the slip partitioning between Indo-Burma Range and Sagaing fault (Liu & Bird 2008). The distribution of active structures indicates that tectonic strain is accommodated not only by the Sagaing fault, but also by other structures in southern Myanmar. Djajadihardja Y.S.. Bertrand G. Because all of the faulted strata are extensively burrowed and have lost their fine structure, we cannot recover many details of the faulting, including any minor faults in the wall of the trench. That is consequently the best estimate for the age of the Sagaing Fault. Fig. Rifting in the Andaman Basin initiated some 9 Ma ago, and ocean spreading only started at 4.5 Ma [Chamot-Rooke et al., 2001]. Sagaing Area, Sagaing Region Theingio Oo Abstract The Sagaing area is located within one inch to one mile scale topographic map of 84 O/13.In the area, rocks such as metamorphic, sedimentary and igneous rocks are exposed, ranging in age from Paleozoic to Cenozoic. Northwest of Thailand is an important ... emplacement age of c. 211-203 Ma, which had metamorphism at c. 84-72 Ma. [17], The pre-Triassic metamorphic basement composed of Kampetlet schist and gneisses were exposed in the Mount Victoria area in Myanmar. and 1613 to 1634 C.E. We attempt to discriminate further the smaller from the larger events by using other available information. Also, the rate seems to vary geographically. For the purpose of constructing these speculative scenarios, we assume that the bend in the Sagaing fault at 18°N, which has an unusually high degree of background seismicity, is a low-coupled patch that presents a natural northern limit to large seismic ruptures (Fig. Our two uniform-slip scenarios are intended merely to stimulate further discussion and work aimed at understanding the past history and future potential of this important section of the Sagaing fault. 5 shows the final restored geometries of the fortress wall. Molnar P.. Socquet A. [7], The obliquity of the Indo-Burma convergent plate boundary (Arakan Trench and Andaman Trench) increases further northwards, with a minimum angle of 58° at 20°N latitude to 70° near 22°N latitude, and rapidly increases to 90° near 24°N latitude and over 90° to further North. Extension and rifting in the Central Andaman Basin began at around 11Ma and extension and sea floor spreading has been ongoing since 4-5 Ma (Khan & Chakraborty, 2005). 1991; Bertrand et al. This research was supported initially by the Caltech Tectonics Observatory and later by the Earth Observatory of Singapore (EOS), Nanyang Technological University, Singapore. The age and offset of this man-made feature offers a great opportunity to constrain the fault slip rate along the Pegu section of the Sagaing Fault. [16] The tectonic regimes transform from northwest-southeast extensional force to basin inversion and was followed by a major uplift event caused by east-west compression during Plio-Pleistocene period. Blue and red dashed lines illustrate the original topography on each side of the fault, prior to the construction of the fortress. Thus, we suggest that the radiocarbon ages of these fragments are greater than the depositional age of these sediments. Southward, the Shan Scarp ends at the junction with the Three Pagodas fault. Sokolov & Wald 2002). to 1930 May C.E. [15] It provides the major topographic relief in Myanmar and it extends towards the southeast to Thailand. The width of the wall east of the fault is greater than that west of the fault. These scenarios cover the straight section of the fault trace from 16.5°N to 18°N. Its upper contact is coincident with the uppermost occurrence of hard, black Fe–Mn-rich soil nodules. The 5–7.5 m offset of the northern fortress wall has accrued since a date in the range of 1369 and 1634 C.E. replacing older andalusite, and synmetamorphic. This map includes primarily tectonic geomorphologic features deduced from analysis of 90-m-resolution SRTM and 15-m stereo ASTER VNIR images. The unit has a sharp upper contact with overlying unit (b) and a gradational lower boundary marked by a colour change. 7c). Orange arrows show the rifting direction of the Andaman Sea spreading centre; Spreading rate (mm yr−1) is from Kamesh Raju et al. The geology of Myanmar is shaped by dramatic, ongoing tectonic processes controlled by shifting tectonic components as the Indian plate slides northwards and towards Southeast Asia. It is a right-lateral strike-slip fault with a displacement rate of 18 mm/yr (Socquet et al., 2006). [31] This resulted in the trend of arc shifting from east-west to the north-south direction. Aerial photography at 1:25 000 and 1:50 000 scales also aided in our mapping along the western and eastern flanks of the Pegu-Yoma range. Geomorphology, Structural Geology and Paleoseismology of the Sagaing Fault between Singu and Wundwin, Central Myanmar. 2004). This step eliminates the influence of differential sedimentation. Porphyry: The base metal sulphide and Au deposits are associated with magmatic intrusions. 15-metre resolution ASTER visible and near infrared (VNIR) imagery and 1:25 000 aerial photos show that the Sagaing fault cuts through a rectangular earthen embankment west of Payagyi, 16 km north of Bago (Fig. [8] The crustal flow runs towards west and into the central region of Myanmar. First, the perfectly linear embankment appears on undeformed fluvial plain across the Sagaing fault. Salin Basin, Chindwin Basin and Hukawng Basin over 1000 km. 1(b) shows active tectonic features in southern Myanmar. Between late Eocene to Miocene, the Burma and Shan-Thai block rotated 30° to 40° clockwise, to accommodate the major collision along the plate boundary. Coloured dashed lines denote different types of the fault rupture. The estimates of separation are less precise for the base of the embankment, because of the uncertainty in extending the topographic profile of the wall downward to the original ground surface. Map of the southern wall of Trench 1. In this case, the magnitudes of earthquakes in the Bago region vary from M 7.3 to M 7.5. The y-axis spans ∼100 km of the Sagaing fault that experienced high seismic intensities during the Pegu earthquake. This rate, averaged over just a few centuries, fills a gap in rates between geological rates averaged over more than a million years and geodetic rates spanning just a few years. This implies that at least a 50-km section of the fault between the two events of 1930 did not rupture during either of these two earthquakes. The rapid construction of this fluvial landscape and the fact that fluvial features are nearly parallel to tectonic landforms make it difficult to identify clear tectonic landforms. This corresponds to Modified Mercalli intensities of VII–IX (Wood & Neumann 1931). The fact that the radiocarbon ages of seven samples of charcoal from different strata within the trench are similar (990–1230 C.E.) [26], In the mid-late Triassic, the Shan-Thai block collided with the Indo-China block, and under-thrusted an ophiolite and associated arc system in the northeast. zircon rims at 47–43 Ma, sillimanite + muscovite. Raitt R.W.. Genrich J.F. 5). They dug into the southern slope of the embankment on the upthrown side and used the sediment to create a small but elevated paddy field. The frequency of strong earthquakes in the Bago region ranges from 167 to 215 yr. For example, the 1917 earthquake appears in several local catalogues but not in any instrumental catalogues. Tsutsumi & Sato (2009) and this study show that the surface displacements near 17°N are close to 3, 6, 9 and 13 m (Fig. Overlying all other units exposed in this trench is a massive cultivated silty layer. The fault trace inside the ancient fortress wall aligns well with other tectonic features north and south of the fortress (Fig. The youngest plausible date of construction of the Payagyi ancient fortress is 1634 C.E., the year that Bago ceased being the capital of the country. The trace of the Sagaing fault is clear as a west-facing topographic scarp cutting across the middle of the map. ; b, Vigny et al. Although we lack palaeoseismological and geodetic data along this fault section that would aid in forecasting its long-term seismic potential, we may still provide a reasonable speculation about its seismic behaviour by constructing fault slip scenarios that match our observations along the southern Sagaing fault. 10b), which uses the form of the uniform slip model proposed for another strike-slip fault, the Imperial Fault (Sieh 1996). [4] The meta-sedimentary and meta-intrusive belt is composed of marbles, schists, gneisses of upper amphibolite, with locally granulite facies intruded by a deformed granodiorite pluton and pegmatites. 2c). Black arrows indicate tectonic tilting of high terraces. This sharp kink results in a local transpressional environment, as evidenced by minor contraction structures on the eastern fluvial plain. Le Dain A.Y. We have constructed plausible uniform-slip models of the earthquake history of this section of the southern Sagaing fault, using the scant available palaeoseismic and historical data. This style of construction still existed in the 16th century royal palace in Bago. [7], The Indo-Burman Range sits at the convergent boundary of the Indian and Burma-micro Plates in Myanmar. Rates across the central Sagaing fault are slower than the Andaman Sea spreading rate (Curray et al. We will also construct speculative fault slip scenarios along the southern Sagaing fault for the past 500 years. 2010). At the last step, we can offset the eastern profile back to visually match the western profile, and determine the horizontal offset (Figs 7d and e). The lack of such structures along the Sagaing fault is consistent with our interpretation of no significant rate difference between the central and southern Sagaing fault. The youngest rupture of Fault II clearly post-dates deposition of brick-rich layer g. However, it must antedate the formation of palaeosol h, since Fault II does not disrupt the palaeosol. Prawirodirdjo L. Myint Thein, 2011. via the active dextral Sagaing Fault [e.g.,Bertrand and Rangin, 2003; Vigny et al., 2003], to the northward motion of West Burma after it became coupled to India [Maung, 1987]. Vigny C. Puntodewo S.S.O. The fault scarp height decreases from ∼1.4 m at the northern wall to ∼20 cm 270 m to the south. These fragments increase upward in concentration, to about 20 per cent at the top of the unit. We also restore the pre-wall topography of the northern side of the fort wall on the upthrown (east) side by replacing the eroded post-constructional sediment. Farther south, the Sagaing fault is also unclear on the young floodplain but probably corresponds to the western edge of a deformed terrace. [44] The formations that compose the hydrocarbon basins are sedimentary rocks of Eocene through mid-Mioceneand sealed with interbedded Oligocene and Miocene shales and clays. 1997). Blue dots are measurements from Tsutsumi & Sato (2009). Here we choose a slope range from 7.5° to 20°, with the maximum slope close to the typical angle of repose for silt (19°; Cobb 2009). Later, thrusting, folding and uplifting formed the Indo-Burman Ranges. the Burma Plate. In order to accommodate the India-Eurasia collision, extensive fault systems can be found in Myanmar. They conjecture that this was the initiation of movement on the Sagaing Fault in the Eocene. We tested this hypothesis by studying the stratigraphy in four pits dug through the wall (1–4 in Figs 2c and 3). Not only does this section lack moderate seismicity in the global seismic catalogue over the past three decades, but local villagers we interviewed also claimed that they had only experienced two to three earthquakes in their life time. Thus, the Sagaing fault offset that is recorded by the fortress wall is between 5 and 7.5 m, most probably ∼6 m. A trench across the fault ∼300 m south of the northern fort wall reveals a partial post-embankment earthquake history. 2004). Active structures are red. Both east and west of the fault, the embankment crest is closer to the northern edge of the embankment than to the southern edge. 1982; Meade 2007; Liu & Bird 2008). It is a global source of true jade and produces some of the world's finest rubies,[5] with mines in the Mogok Valley providing the bulk of the world's supply for centuries.[35]. Estimation of offset on the northern fortress wall is complicated by the fact that the separation of the northern edge of the wall differs markedly from the separation of the southern edge. [7], The rifted Burma-microplate from Gondwanaland also docked against Shan-Thai block and together formed part of the Sunda plate approximately in the period. 2004). The two pit walls on the downthrown side show the elevation of the ground surface prior to wall construction. Start This article has been rated as Start-Class on the project's quality scale. The interview records and field photos are included in the Supporting Information (Tables S1 and S2). Although they did not have a solid constraint on the timing of fault initiation, the similarity of their result may imply little or no variability over an even longer interval—10 Myr. Gahalaut & Gahalaut (2007) demonstrate how plate rotation and plate geometry affects the fault slip rate in this area. To estimate the amount of offset, we first restore the geometry of the fort wall on the downthrown (west) side of the fault by removing the post-construction deposit (Fig. This interpretation is not in conflict with the radiocarbon age of organic material under the fortress (PYG0101a), which constrains construction of the embankment to after a date in the range of 1220–1300 C.E. [16] The Shan Scarp aligns parallel to the Sagaing fault on the east. [4], The Indo-Burman Range bulges towards the west at the center (about 22°N), forming an arc-shaped structure. Its northern base, the southern base, and the crest. Bertrand G. (2003). Field investigations of an ancient fortress wall in southern Myanmar reveal an offset of ∼6 m across the Sagaing fault, the major right-lateral fault between the Sunda and Burma plates. Guillaud J.P.. Brown C.J. West of the GLGSZ is the Tengchong block that is the northern continuation of the Mogok Hence, we believe the high intensities of the Pegu and Pyu earthquakes likely represent the maximum lengths of their fault ruptures. 1(b) surround the regions of highest intensity (Rossi-Forel VIII–IX; Brown et al. The topmost part of layer (a) is a 2-cm-thick light-grey loose silt, uniformly distributed on the paddy field and the paddy field boundary. The change of scarp height is an indication that the vertical component of slip varies along strike, a common observation along strike slip faults (Yeats et al. These characteristics suggest an immature soil that was buried rapidly by construction of the earthen wall. Raitt R.W. 9). [21] The convergent motion is absorbed by a highly oblique subduction zone between the Indian plate and Burma-micro plate and internal deformation in the centre of Myanmar on the Sagaing Fault. 2.2. The hard, dark Fe–Mn nodules are also abundant in this deposit. [8] 3. [16] The general trend of reverse fault strikes is N20°W and dips in the east-northeast direction; where some N20°E striking normal faults were identified along the fault scarp (at 21°N to 22°N latitude), north of Mandalay. McCaffrey R. This was time of great military activity in the region, and Pegu (Bago) was wealthy enough to build outlying defences such as this one. The pattern of surface rupture associated with the Pegu earthquake in 1930 raises an interesting issue concerning the fault-slip behaviour of the southern Sagaing fault. The English translation of his description is included in the Supporting Information (Table S3). In the latter case, the dates of sedimentation are the same as or younger than the charcoal ages. On the overriding plate sliver fault, the West Andaman and Sagaing fault systems were formed, along which the relative movements caused extension and opening of early Andaman back‐arc system (Khan & Chakraborty 2005) in the formation of the Mergui–Sumatra Basin during the Oligocene. We propose two fault-slip scenarios to explain the earthquake-rupture history of the southern Sagaing fault. The numbers not in parentheses are the horizontal offset more precisely ( Fig the scant,! The trend of arc shifting from east-west to the scant historical, palaeoseismological and slip data is 2! 1000 km this unit but do not exist in unit ( b ) increases gradually towards the east Andaman,! Which also assumes a classical uniform-slip behaviour for the age of this method. Faults [ Vigny et al appear on Fig by aerial photography and satellite.! 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